- Principles and history of classification.
- Major taxonomic categories: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
- Binomial nomenclature: rules and importance.
- Tools for taxonomy: dichotomous keys, taxonomic keys, and molecular taxonomy.
- Modern trends in taxonomy: phylogenetics and cladistics.
- Study of vertebrate organ systems:
- Skeletal System: Axial and appendicular skeleton, adaptive modifications in birds and mammals.
- Muscular System: Types of muscles and their roles in movement.
- Nervous System: Central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems; comparison across vertebrates.
- Circulatory System: Open and closed circulatory systems, evolution of the heart.
- Respiratory System: Gills, lungs, and skin respiration; adaptations in aquatic and terrestrial animals.
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- Digestive System: Digestion and absorption of nutrients; comparative digestive adaptations in herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
- Excretion and Osmoregulation: Types of nitrogenous waste; kidney structure and function.
- Endocrinology: Hormones and their functions; endocrine glands in vertebrates.
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- Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells: structural differences.
- Cell organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosomes, and chloroplasts.
- Plasma membrane structure and functions: fluid mosaic model, active and passive transport.
- Structure of DNA and RNA.
- DNA replication: enzymes involved and mechanisms.
- Transcription and translation: synthesis of RNA and proteins.
- Post-transcriptional modifications.
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- Mendel’s laws of inheritance: monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.
- Chromosomal theory of inheritance.
- Genetic disorders: Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome.
- Population genetics: Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
- Ecosystem components: biotic and abiotic factors.
- Food chains, food webs, and ecological pyramids.
- Biogeochemical cycles: carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
- Energy flow in ecosystems.
- Ecological succession: primary and secondary succession.
- Threatened and endangered species: IUCN categories.
- Conservation strategies: in-situ and ex-situ conservation.
- National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.
- Biodiversity hotspots: significance and examples.
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- Theories of evolution: Lamarckism, Darwinism, and Neo-Darwinism.
- Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow.
- Speciation: allopatric and sympatric speciation.
- Fossil records and molecular evidence for evolution.
- Gametogenesis: spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
- Fertilization: mechanisms and types.
- Cleavage: holoblastic and meroblastic cleavage.
- Gastrulation and formation of germ layers.
- Organogenesis: development of heart, brain, and limbs.
- Metamorphosis: insect (complete and incomplete) and amphibian metamorphosis.
- Regeneration: mechanisms and examples in vertebrates and invertebrates.
Microbiology
- Classification of microorganisms: bacteria, fungi, viruses, and algae.
- Microbial structure: bacterial cell wall, flagella, and spores.
- Culture techniques: streak plate, pour plate, and serial dilution.
- Applications of microbiology in medicine and industry.
- Protozoan parasites: Plasmodium (malaria), Entamoeba (amoebiasis).
- Helminth parasites: Ascaris (roundworm), Taenia (tapeworm).
- Life cycles: definitive and intermediate hosts.
- Pathogenicity and control measures.
Biotechnology
- Genetic engineering: recombinant DNA technology.
- Cloning and transgenic animals.
- Applications: gene therapy, CRISPR, and bioremediation.
- Biomolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
- Enzymes: classification, mechanisms, and factors affecting enzyme activity.
- Metabolic pathways: glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain.
Aquaculture and Fisheries
- Breeding techniques: induced breeding and selective breeding.
- Economic importance of aquaculture: prawns, fish, and mollusks.
- Diseases in fisheries and control measures.
- Insects as vectors: mosquitoes (malaria, dengue), houseflies.
- Agricultural pests: types and control methods.
- Integrated pest management (IPM): biological, chemical, and cultural methods.
- Pollution: air, water, and soil pollution.
- Eutrophication and its effects on aquatic life.
- Climate change and global warming: impact on biodiversity.
Scientific Writing and Communication
- Steps in writing a research paper.
- Preparing effective presentations: tools and techniques.
- Referencing styles: APA, MLA, and Chicago.
- Microscopic techniques: light and electron microscopy.
- Molecular techniques: PCR, electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing.
- Histological techniques: tissue preparation and staining.