PANTOMATH

ELECTRONICS - KEYWORD DESCRIPTIONS

Electronics is concerned with devices and systems that use electrical energy for the purpose of signal processing, communication, computation, and control.

Electricity vs. Electronics:

• Electricity focuses on the generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical power.
• Electronics is about manipulating electrical signals for specific functions (e.g., amplifying, switching).

Key Components in Electronics

Electronics is built on the foundation of basic components. These include:

a. Passive Components

• Resistor: Limits or controls the flow of electric current.

• Unit: Ohm (Ω).
• Example: Used in circuits to reduce current or divide voltage.
• Capacitor: Stores energy in the form of an electric field.

• Unit: Farad (F).
• Example: Used for filtering and timing applications.
• Inductor: Stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.

• Unit: Henry (H).
• Example: Used in transformers and filtering.

b. Active Components

• Diode: Allows current to flow in one direction only.

• Types: Light-Emitting Diode (LED), Zener Diode.
• Example: Used for rectification.
• Transistor: Acts as a switch or amplifier.

• Types: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), Field Effect Transistor (FET).
• Example: Used in amplifiers and microprocessors.
• Integrated Circuit (IC): A small chip that contains multiple transistors and other components.
• Example: Microcontrollers, processors.

c. Special Components

• Microcontroller: A compact IC used for specific control-oriented applications.
• Sensor: Converts physical phenomena (e.g., temperature, light) into electrical signals.

Types of Electronic Circuits

Electronics broadly uses two types of circuits:

Analog Circuits: Work with continuous signals.

• Example: AM/FM radios.

Digital Circuits: Work with discrete binary signals (0 and 1).

• Example: Computers, digital watches.

Semiconductor Technology ​​​

Semiconductors form the backbone of modern electronics.Definition: Materials that have electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator.

• Example: Silicon, Germanium.
• Applications: Diodes, transistors, solar cells.

Types of Semiconductors:

• Intrinsic: Pure semiconductors (no impurities).
• Extrinsic: Doped semiconductors to increase conductivity.
• n-type: Negative charge carriers (electrons).
• p-type: Positive charge carriers (holes).

Applications of Electronics

Electronics is integral to various domains:

• Communication Systems: Radios, televisions, mobile phones.
• Computing Devices: Laptops, microprocessors.
• Automation and Control: Robots, industrial automation.
• Medical Equipment: ECG machines, MRI scanners.
• Consumer Electronics: Smart TVs, gaming consoles.

Signals in Electronics

• Analog Signals: Continuous signals that vary smoothly.
• Digital Signals: Discrete signals that take on binary values (0 and 1).

Signal processing involves converting, filtering, and modifying these signals for desired outputs.

Power Electronics

This subfield focuses on the conversion and control of electric power.

• Converters: Convert one form of electrical energy to another (e.g., AC to DC).
• Inverters: Convert DC to AC (used in solar power systems).

Field of Study

Electricity:

Part of electrical engineering focused on large-scale systems like power grids, generators, and electric motors.

Electronics:

Part of electronics engineering focused on small-scale systems like integrated circuits (ICs), semiconductors, and signal processing.Nature of Current      

Electricity:

Primarily deals with the transmission and flow of high-power electrical energy in the form of:

• Direct Current (DC) – e.g., Batteries
• Alternating Current (AC) – e.g., Power supply in homes.

Electronics:

Deals with low-power electrical signals for processing and controlling data:

• Analog signals – Continuous signals.
• Digital signals – Binary (0s and 1s).

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB)A PCB mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads, and other features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)An IC is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material. It is used in almost every electronic device, from computers to smartphones.

MICROCONTROLLERA microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a specific operation in an embedded system. It typically includes a CPU, memory, and I/O peripherals.

POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is an electronic device that provides electrical energy to one or more electric loads. It converts AC power to the required DC levels.

SENSORSSensors are devices that detect and respond to input from the physical environment, such as temperature, pressure, or light, and convert it into readable signals.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)An op-amp is a high-gain voltage amplifier with differential input and typically a single-ended output. It is used in signal conditioning, filtering, or to perform mathematical operations.

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP)DSP refers to the use of digital processing, such as computers or specialized processors, to manipulate signals after they have been converted to digital form.

SWITCHESSwitches are components that can open or close an electrical circuit, thereby interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

FUSESFuses are safety devices that protect electrical circuits from overcurrent. They contain a metal wire that melts when too much current flows through it.

LOGIC GATESLogic gates are basic building blocks of digital circuits. They perform basic logical functions like AND, OR, and NOT.

VOLTAGE REGULATORA voltage regulator is an electronic device designed to maintain a constant voltage level in electrical circuits.

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

• I2C: A serial bus interface that connects integrated circuits.
• SPI: A synchronous serial communication interface used for short-distance communication.
• UART: A hardware communication protocol for asynchronous serial communication.

DISPLAY DEVICES

• LED (Light Emitting Diode): Emits light when an electric current flows through it.
• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): Uses liquid crystals to display images, commonly used in screens.
• OLED (Organic LED): A more advanced display technology offering higher contrast ratios.

MICROPROCESSORA microprocessor is a central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit chip. It performs arithmetic and logic operations required to execute instructions.

BATTERIESBatteries are energy storage devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Common types include Li-ion, NiMH, and Lead-Acid batteries.

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TOOLS

• Oscilloscope: Measures and displays voltage signals over time.
• Multimeter: Measures voltage, current, and resistance.
• Logic Analyzer: Monitors and captures multiple digital signals for debugging.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)EMI refers to disturbance generated by external sources affecting electronic devices. Shielding and filtering techniques are used to minimize EMI.

WIRES AND CONNECTORSWires are conductors for electricity, while connectors provide a detachable interface between electronic circuits.

BASIC CIRCUITS

• Series Circuit: Components connected end-to-end, sharing the same current.
• Parallel Circuit: Components connected across the same voltage source.

THYRISTORA thyristor is a four-layered semiconductor device acting as a switch, rectifier, or voltage controller in circuits. It is commonly used in high-power applications.

RELAYA relay is an electrically operated switch used to control a high-power circuit with a low-power signal, ensuring electrical isolation between the control and the operating circuit.

TRANSFORMERA transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. It is widely used for voltage step-up or step-down.

CRYSTAL OSCILLATORA crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal to generate precise frequency signals, often used in clocks and communication devices.

ELECTRIC MOTORSElectric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Types include:

• DC Motors: Powered by direct current.
• AC Motors: Powered by alternating current.
• Stepper Motors: Rotate in discrete steps.
• Servo Motors: Provide high precision in motion control.

RESISTOR COLOR CODEA system of coloured bands on resistors indicates their resistance value and tolerance. It is a universal method for identifying resistor ratings.

TYPES OF CAPACITORS

• Electrolytic Capacitor: High capacitance values, used in power supplies.
• Ceramic Capacitor: Low capacitance, used in high-frequency circuits.
• Tantalum Capacitor: Stable and reliable for low-voltage applications.
• Film Capacitor: Used for high-precision applications.

FILTER CIRCUITSElectronic circuits used to remove unwanted frequencies or noise from signals:

• Low-pass Filter: Allows low-frequency signals to pass.
• High-pass Filter: Allows high-frequency signals to pass.
• Band-pass Filter: Allows a range of frequencies to pass.
• Notch Filter: Blocks specific frequencies.

RECTIFIERA rectifier converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Common types include:

• Half-wave Rectifier
• Full-wave Rectifier
• Bridge Rectifier

SOLAR CELLA solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy using the photovoltaic effect. It is a key component in solar panels.

LIGHT-EMITTING COMPONENTS

• LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes): Emit light when current flows through them.
• Seven-Segment Display: Used to display numbers, often in digital clocks and calculators.
• Laser Diodes: Produce coherent light, commonly used in optical drives and laser pointers

HEAT SINK          A heat sink is a passive cooling device that dissipates heat from electronic components like CPUs, GPUs, and power transistors.

ANTENNASAntennas transmit and receive electromagnetic waves in wireless communication systems. Types include:

• Yagi-Uda Antenna: Used in TV reception.
• Dipole Antenna: Common in radio systems.
• Parabolic Antenna: Used in satellite communication.

MEMORY COMPONENTS

• RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory used for temporary storage.
• ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that stores permanent data.

• EEPROM: Electrically erasable programmable memory.

SIGNAL MODULATION        Techniques used in communication systems:

• AM (Amplitude Modulation): Modulates the amplitude of the carrier signal.
• FM (Frequency Modulation): Modulates the frequency of the carrier signal.
• PM (Phase Modulation): Modulates the phase of the carrier signal.

POWER ELECTRONICS

• Inverters: Convert DC to AC.
• Converters: Change the voltage or current levels in circuits.
• UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply): Provides backup power during outages.

TYPES OF SENSORS

• Temperature Sensors: Measure heat (e.g., thermocouples, RTDs).
• Light Sensors: Detect light intensity (e.g., photodiodes, LDRs).
• Pressure Sensors: Measure pressure changes.
• Motion Sensors: Detect movement or proximity.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMSEmbedded systems are dedicated computer systems designed for specific tasks. Examples include:

• Home appliances like microwaves.
• Automotive control systems like ABS.

ELECTROMAGNETSElectromagnets create a magnetic field when current flows through a wire coil. They are widely used in motors, speakers, and relays.

SWITCH-MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS)SMPS is a highly efficient power supply that uses switching regulators to convert electrical power efficiently.

FLIP-FLOP CIRCUITSFlip-flops are basic memory elements in digital circuits. Types include:

• SR Flip-Flop
• JK Flip-Flop
• D Flip-Flop
• T Flip-Flop

SIGNAL INTEGRITYEnsuring proper transmission of electrical signals without distortion in high-speed circuits. It is critical in PCB design.

OPTICAL ISOLATORAn optical isolator, or optocoupler, transfers electrical signals using light, providing electrical isolation between circuits.

BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS)A system designed to monitor and control the charging and discharging of batteries, ensuring safe operation and extended battery life.Different Types of Batteries

Basically, all the electrochemical cells and batteries are classified into two types:

• Primary (non-rechargeable)
• Secondary (rechargeable)

There are some other types of Secondary Batteries, but the four major types are:

•  Lead – Acid Batteries
• Nickel – Cadmium Batteries
• Nickel – Metal Hydride Batteries
• Lithium – Ion Batteries

BASIC ELECTRONIC FORMULAS

• Ohm’s Law: V=IRV = IRV=IR
• Power Formula: P=VIP = VIP=VI
• Capacitor Charging/Discharging: Q=CVQ = CVQ=CV

PHOTORESISTOR (LDR - LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR)A photoresistor changes its resistance based on the intensity of light. It is commonly used in automatic streetlights and other light-sensitive applications.

TRIACA TRIAC is a semiconductor device used to control AC power. It can switch and control power in both directions, making it ideal for dimmers and motor speed controls.ZENER DIODE      A Zener diode allows current to flow in the reverse direction when a specific reverse voltage, called the Zener breakdown voltage, is reached. It is used for voltage regulation

SCHOTTKY DIODEA Schottky diode is a semiconductor diode with low forward voltage drop and fast switching action. It is widely used in power rectification and radio frequency applications.

VOLTAGE DIVIDERA voltage divider is a circuit that divides input voltage into smaller output voltages proportionally, typically using two resistors in series.

WHEATSTONE BRIDGEA Wheatstone Bridge is a circuit used to measure unknown resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit. It is often used in sensor measurements like strain gauges. BREADBOARDA breadboard is a platform for prototyping electronic circuits without soldering. It allows quick construction and testing of temporary circuits.LOGIC ICsLogic ICs are integrated circuits that perform logical operations like AND, OR, NAND, NOR, and XOR. Examples include the 7400 series of ICs.CRYSTAL FILTERCrystal filters are high-selectivity filters used in communication systems to isolate specific frequencies.RECTIFIER FILTERFilters in rectifiers smooth out the pulsating DC output, commonly using capacitors and inductors.

CHOKEA choke is an inductor used to block high-frequency AC while allowing DC or low-frequency AC to pass. It is often used in power supplies.VARISTOR         A varistor is a voltage-dependent resistor that protects circuits from voltage spikes, such as in surge protectors.OPTOELECTRONICS             Optoelectronic components interact with light, such as LEDs, photodiodes, and optocouplers.

ADC (ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER)An ADC converts analog signals into digital data, enabling analog inputs to be processed by digital systems.DAC (DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER)A DAC performs the reverse of ADC, converting digital data into analog signals, often used in audio applications.

SOLDERINGSoldering is a process of joining electronic components by melting solder onto connections. It ensures electrical continuity and mechanical stability.

PROTOTYPING TOOLSTools such as perfboards, jumper wires, and soldering kits are used for assembling and testing electronic circuits.RELAXATION OSCILLATORSA type of oscillator circuit that generates a non-sinusoidal waveform, such as a square or triangle wave.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYSElectromechanical switches operate using an electromagnet to mechanically move a switch contact.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONS

• Inverting Amplifier: Produces an output that is inverted relative to the input.
• Non-Inverting Amplifier: Maintains the input signal's polarity at the output.
• Differential Amplifier: Outputs the difference between two input voltages.

SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY (SMT)A method for producing electronic circuits in which components are mounted directly onto the PCB surface.

PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECTPiezoelectric materials generate voltage when mechanical stress is applied, used in sensors and actuators.

THERMISTORA thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature, often used in temperature sensors.

FERRITE BEADSFerrite beads suppress high-frequency noise in electronic circuits. They are often used in power supplies and data lines.

MEMS (MICRO-ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS)MEMS are tiny devices integrating mechanical and electrical components, used in accelerometers, gyroscopes, and pressure sensors.

SIGNAL GENERATORS

• Devices used to create electronic signals for testing circuits, including sine, square, and triangle waveforms.
• Devices used to create electronic signals for testing circuits, including sine, square, and triangle waveforms.

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)PWM is a technique to control the average power delivered to a load by varying the duty cycle of a square wave. It is used in motor control and LED dimming.

NOISE IN ELECTRONICS

• Thermal Noise: Generated by the random motion of electrons in a conductor.
• Shot Noise: Caused by the discrete nature of charge carriers.
• Electromagnetic Noise: Caused by external sources like nearby devices or power lines.

IMPEDANCE MATCHINGMatching the impedance of a source and load ensures maximum power transfer and minimizes signal reflection in circuits.

BATTERY TYPES

• Primary Batteries: Non-rechargeable, like alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries.
• Secondary Batteries: Rechargeable, like lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH).

TUNED CIRCUITSTuned circuits, comprising inductors and capacitors, are used to select specific frequencies in radio receivers.

VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERSVoltage multipliers use diodes and capacitors to produce high-voltage DC from low-voltage AC sources.

SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

• Audio Amplifiers: Amplify sound signals.
• RF Amplifiers: Amplify radio frequency signals.

PCB DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

• Trace width and spacing.
• Signal integrity.
• Heat dissipation.

FERROELECTRIC MATERIALSFerroelectric materials exhibit spontaneous electric polarization that can be reversed by an external electric field. These materials are used in memory devices and capacitors.

ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE (ESD)ESD refers to the sudden flow of electricity between two electrically charged objects. ESD protection is essential in sensitive electronic components to prevent damage.

MAGNETORESISTIVE SENSORA sensor that detects changes in magnetic fields, commonly used in hard drives and automotive applications.

HALL EFFECT SENSORA Hall effect sensor detects the presence and strength of a magnetic field. It is widely used in position sensing and motor control.

PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORSThese sensors use a light beam to detect objects, changes in surface conditions, or other properties. They are often used in automation systems.

E-PAPER DISPLAYE-paper displays mimic the appearance of ink on paper and are used in e-readers. They consume very low power and provide excellent readability in sunlight.

QUARTZ CRYSTALSQuartz crystals generate a precise frequency through mechanical vibration, commonly used in clocks, watches, and frequency stabilization.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION (PFC)PFC improves the efficiency of power usage in AC circuits by reducing the phase difference between voltage and current.

SMPS MODES

• Flyback Converter: Used in low-power devices.
• Buck Converter: Steps down voltage.
• Boost Converter: Steps up voltage.
• Buck-Boost Converter: Can step up or stepdown voltage as required.

MOTOR DRIVERSMotor drivers act as an interface between the microcontroller and motors, providing the necessary current and voltage for operation.

TOUCH SCREEN TECHNOLOGIES

• Resistive Touch: Works on pressure.
• Capacitive Touch: Uses the conductivity of the human body.
• Infrared Touch: Detects interruptions in an infrared light grid.

EMI FILTERSElectromagnetic interference (EMI) filters block unwanted high-frequency signals in electronic devices, ensuring signal integrity and compliance with standards.

RESONANT CIRCUITSA resonant circuit uses inductors and capacitors to resonate at a specific frequency. Applications include filters, oscillators, and tuning circuits.

DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS

• Combinational Logic: Outputs depend only on the current inputs (e.g., multiplexers, decoders).
• Sequential Logic: Outputs depend on current and past inputs (e.g., flip-flops, counters).

RFID TECHNOLOGYRadio Frequency Identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects.

IoT (INTERNET OF THINGS)IoT refers to the interconnection of devices, allowing them to communicate and exchange data over the internet.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

• Bluetooth: Short-range communication for personal devices.
• Zigbee: Low-power, wireless communication for IoT.
• LoRaWAN: Long-range, low-power protocol for wide-area IoT networks.

AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)ASK is a modulation technique where the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied according to the data signal.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

• Conductor: Allows the free flow of electric current (e.g., copper, silver).
• Insulator: Prevents the flow of electric current (e.g., rubber, plastic).

PRINTED ELECTRONICSA set of printing methods used to create electronic devices on flexible substrates like plastic or paper.

CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES

• Circuit Breaker: Automatically interrupts current flow when a fault is detected.
• Thermistor Fuse: Protects against overheating by changing resistance.

WIRELESS POWER TRANSFERWireless power transfer uses electromagnetic fields to transmit energy without physical connectors. Examples include wireless chargers and RFID.

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS (ANN) IN ELECTRONICSANNs are used for signal processing, pattern recognition, and system control, mimicking biological neural networks.

FREQUENCY DOUBLERSFrequency doublers generate a signal with twice the frequency of the input signal, used in communication systems and signal processing.

OSCILLATORS

• RC Oscillator: Produces a sine wave using resistors and capacitors.
• Crystal Oscillator: Uses a quartz crystal for precise frequency.
• LC Oscillator: Combines inductors and capacitors for resonance.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORA synchronous motor rotates at a speed directly proportional to the AC supply frequency, used in precise speed control applications.

DIELECTRIC MATERIALSMaterials with poor electrical conductivity but excellent charge storage capabilities. These are commonly used in capacitors.

THERMAL RESISTANCEThe measure of a material's resistance to the flow of heat, crucial in designing heat sinks and thermal management systems.

ENERGY HARVESTINGThe process of capturing and storing energy from ambient sources like solar, wind, and vibrations, used in low-power devices.

PELTIER DEVICEA thermoelectric cooler that creates a temperature difference when electric current flows through it, commonly used in portable coolers.

HIGH-SPEED SERIAL COMMUNICATION

• SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): Synchronous protocol for fast communication.
• I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit): Two-wire protocol for communication between chips.
• UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter): Asynchronous serial communication.

MEMRISTORA memristor is a resistor with memory, capable of remembering its last resistance even after power is turned off. It is a potential component in next-gen memory devices.